This
article chiefly discusses computerized instruction in schools.
How
computerized instruction works
To use a computer for instruction—or for any other purpose—a user needs hardware
and software. The physical equipment that makes up a computer system is
called hardware. Computer software, also called a program, tells the
hardware what to do and how to do it. Many instructional programs are recorded
on a type of disc called a CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only
Memory), which can store large amounts of data. Multimedia programs
combine text, images, animation, and sound. Multimedia CD-ROM's are a popular
learning tool. Common features enable users to click the mouse on a word to see
a definition or hear a pronunciation or view a related illustration or video clip.
Approaches to computerized instruction differ in the amount of instruction
provided by the computer. In some cases, a teacher provides most of the
instruction and asks students to operate a program to supplement the lesson.
For example, a history teacher might ask students to use a program to learn
about political campaigns before a class presentation on elections. In other
cases, the computer provides most of the instruction. Schoolchildren can
operate this type of program independently without a teacher. For example,
students in remote or isolated communities can take advantage of such a program
when a teacher is not available.
Types of
programs
Educational programs are divided into groups according to the teaching methods
they use. Different types of programs include drill-and-practice programs,
tutorials, instructional games, simulations, and resource programs.
Some of the programs combine teaching methods.
Drill-and-practice programs imitate flashcards. Students often use
drill-and-practice programs to master material learned from a teacher or
another source. Examples of drill-and-practice programs include multiplication
drills and vocabulary practice programs.
Tutorials give a learner a small amount of information and then ask a
question about the material. If the student answers correctly, the program
presents new material and questions. If the student gives a wrong answer, the
program explains the error. Students can use tutorials in all subject areas.
Instructional games enable students to win a computer game by using
information that they have learned. Many instructional games use printed
materials to supply the content that players must learn to win. Students often
play instructional computer games in social studies classes. In one popular
series of games, students look up answers to geography or history questions to
chase a criminal around the world or through time.
Simulations are computer representations of realistic situations.
Students make choices and watch how their choices affect outcomes. In one
popular simulation, players design their own cities. Students decide how to
provide public services, such as transportation and utilities. They determine
how to use land and how much tax to charge residents. These decisions affect factors
that influence the desirability of the city, including the cost of houses, the
crime rate, and the amount of pollution.
Software companies often design simulations for mathematics, science, and
social studies classes. Some schools have replaced science laboratories with
simulations that enable students to perform experiments. For example, a biology
class might learn anatomy from a simulated dissection of a frog instead of
cutting up a real dead animal.
Resource programs give a learner access to databases (collections
of useful information). Resource programs are a powerful tool for doing
research. People can search (extract information from) databases in ways
that meet their individual needs. For example, users can specify a subject or
an author's name. One example of a resource program is an encyclopedia on
CD-ROM, such as The World Book Multimedia Encyclopedia.
Databases may be local or remote. Local databases are available
only to one computer or to a local area network of computers that are
connected to one another and share software. Remote databases, also known as online
databases or online resources, are stored on a computer at a
different location. Computer operators gain access to remote databases using a modem
or other device that enables computers to communicate with each other over a
network. After users search online databases, they often electronically copy
information, or download it, to their own computer to examine later.
One of the most powerful and popular online resources is the Internet. The
Internet is a vast computer network over which governments, universities,
businesses, and individuals exchange information. Although the Internet
contains a wealth of data, images, and sounds, finding specific information can
be difficult. Because no overall authority checks the accuracy of information,
users must evaluate Internet sources carefully.
Development
of computerized instruction
Computerized instruction is based on a method of teaching called programmed
instruction. Programmed instruction presents a sequence of material in
small units that gradually increase in difficulty. Before computers were used
for instruction, most programmed learning consisted of paper-and-pencil
workbooks or tutorials. Students responded to questions and then were directed
to different places in the tutorial, based on their answers. The students had
to learn the material in one unit before they could go on to the next. Many
students found tutorials awkward to use.
Early teaching machines. During the 1920's, researchers developed teaching
machines that could deliver programmed instruction. The first teaching
machine was a mechanical testing device that asked multiple-choice questions,
one at a time. The machine did not present a new question until the student
pressed the correct lever.
By the early 1960's, teaching machines became more complex. The machines
presented information on a small screen and used sound or light to indicate a
correct response.
One of the first widespread uses of computerized instruction was PLATO (Programmed
Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations), a project
developed by the University of Illinois. PLATO was the first instruction system
that combined graphics with a touch-sensitive screen. By the early 1970's, many
students were using PLATO instructional materials on large computers called mainframes.
The personal computer. Technological advances helped to produce smaller,
faster, less expensive computers. By the late 1970's, electronics companies
introduced personal computers. Unlike mainframes, personal computers
were inexpensive enough for many individuals, families, and schools to purchase
them. More students had access to computers, and they welcomed the novelty of
computerized instruction. But most of the programs available at this time were
poorly designed. Many were drill-and-practice programs that required lots of
memorization and used the computer screen as if it were a piece of electronic
paper.
In the 1980's, new computer technology helped to revolutionize software.
Computer manufacturers developed faster computers with more memory and improved
color screens. Computer programmers added more colors, attractive graphics, and
lively animation. CD-ROM drives made it possible for programs to easily provide
audio and video information. By the late 1980's, a technology called graphical
user interface made most instructional programs easier to use. This
technology enables users to give the computer instructions by selecting a
picture called an icon rather than by typing commands.
Trends in computerized instruction. The importance of computers
continues to increase in schools and throughout society. Computerized
instruction can help students learn and also help them acquire computer
literacy. Many experts feel that skill and confidence in using computers are
some of the most essential lessons that education can provide. Because these
skills are so important, equal access to computers has become a topic of public
debate. Experts feel that society must find ways to make computers and other
expensive technologies available to schools of all income levels.
The technology of computerized instruction continues to advance. Software
engineers are working with artificial intelligence to design programs
that—like good teachers—ask interesting questions and respond to creative
answers. Artificial intelligence enables a computer to process information in a
manner similar to the way a person thinks. In addition, some publishers have
begun offering electronic books, also called e-books, that present
textbook information through computers.
As computerized instruction becomes more widespread in schools, many educators
expect the role of a teacher to change. In a classroom where computers are used
extensively, the teacher may no longer be the main source of information.
Instead, the teacher may act as a facilitator, helping students locate,
interpret, and share information.
______________
Contributor:
• Ward Mitchell Cates, Ed.D., Associate Professor, Lehigh University.
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Mitchell Cates, "Computerized instruction," World Book Online
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2002. |
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